Neoclassicism and the Enlightenment Essay -- Neoclassical Movement

Neoclassicism and the Enlightenment The Enlightenment was a time of great innovation and evolution. One of the most significant movements which owes at least the majority of its beginnings to the Enlightenment is the architectural and artistic movement of Neoclassicism. This Neoclassicism of the mid eighteenth to mid nineteenth centuries is one that valued ancient Greek, Roman, and Etruscan artistic ideals. These ideals, including order, symmetry, and balance, were considered by many European generations to be the highest point of artistic excellence. Although many movements in European art were largely devoid of classical characteristics, they were always looked to as sources of inspiration and were revived as significant movements at least three times throughout European history, in the twelfth century, during the Renaissance, and during the age of the present topic, the Enlightenment, with its development of Neoclassicism. There are several events and movements within the Enlightenment that contributed to the rise of Neoclassicism. The expansion, evolution, and redefinition of the European standard classical education was one of the greatest causes, as well was the then recent archeological discoveries of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The rise in commissioned art and architecture and the refinement of art scholarship also gave rise to this movement. Finally, the general reaction to the exorbitant styles of Baroque and Rococo necessitated a return to the more orderly ideals of antiquity. The Neoclassical movement, for the purposes of this paper, can be defined as the movement that, from 1750 to 1830, looked back to the Greek and Roman artists, philosophers, and ideals as the highest point in artistic achievement and then attempted to combine antiquity's feelings of solidarity and harmony with new designs to create a vibrant and exciting, yet distinguished and restrained art form. From the "rustic hut" to Doric to Corinthian the art of the ancients was seen as a perfect blend of "order, symmetry, and simplicity of style."[1] This is what the artists and architects of France, England, and Italy sought to integrate into their art. One of the earliest causes for the rise of Neoclassicism is the reaction by many Enlightenment thinkers to Rococo and Baroque art. The Baroque was too busy and ornamental for many people and ... ...ding Baroque and Rococo forms. Neoclassicism was the dominant art form through a turbulent period in history. It influenced and weathered several national revolutions and international wars and because of its strength and balance, perhaps the era was made all the stronger because of the art and architecture that was the backdrop for the action of the age. Bibliography Irwin, David. Neoclassicism. London, Phaidon, 1997. Watkin, David. German Architecture and the Classical Ideal. Cambridge, MIT Press 1987. Rosenblum and Janson. 19th Century Art. New York, Abrams, 1984. Sculpture, 1760-1840." Eighteenth-Century Studies Vol. 34 (2000): 135 Hutton, J. "Neoclassicism." CHOICE: Current Reviews for Academic Libraries. Vol. 35 (1998): 1843 http://virtual.park.uga.edu/~232/voc/neoclassicism.voc.html http://www.grovereference.com/TDA/Samples/Neo.htm http://mistral.culture.fr/lumiere/documents/files/imaginary_exhibition.html http://mistral.culture.fr/lumiere/documents/files/cadre_historique.html --------------------------------------------------------------------- [1] http://www.dictionary.com/search?q=neoclassicism [2] Irwin, 87 [3] Irwin, 98

Federal Reserve :: Economics

The Federal Reserve is the central bank of the United States. It was created by Congress to provide the nation with a safer, more flexible and more stable monetary and financial system. The Federal Reserve was created on December 23, 1913, with the signing of the Federal Reserve Act by President Woodrow Wilson. Today, the Federal Reserve’s duties fall into four general areas:conducting the nation’s monetary policy by influencing money and credit conditions in the economy in pursuit of full employment and stable prices, regulating banking institutions to ensure the safety of the nation’s banking and financial system and to protect the credit rights of consumers, maintaining the stability of the financial system and providing certain financial services to the U.S. government, to the public, to financial institutions and to foreign official institutions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The structure of the Federal Reserve was designed by Congress to give it a broad perspective on the economy and on economic activity in all parts of the nation. It is composed of a central government agency(Board of Governors) in Washington D.C., 12 regional Reserve Banks, located in major cities around the nation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Federal Reserve’s income comes from the interest on U.S. government securities that it has acquired through open market operations. Other sources of income are the interest on foreign currency investments. Once the Federal Reserve has paid its expenses, it then turns over the rest of its earnings to the U.S. Federal Reserve :: Economics The Federal Reserve is the central bank of the United States. It was created by Congress to provide the nation with a safer, more flexible and more stable monetary and financial system. The Federal Reserve was created on December 23, 1913, with the signing of the Federal Reserve Act by President Woodrow Wilson. Today, the Federal Reserve’s duties fall into four general areas:conducting the nation’s monetary policy by influencing money and credit conditions in the economy in pursuit of full employment and stable prices, regulating banking institutions to ensure the safety of the nation’s banking and financial system and to protect the credit rights of consumers, maintaining the stability of the financial system and providing certain financial services to the U.S. government, to the public, to financial institutions and to foreign official institutions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The structure of the Federal Reserve was designed by Congress to give it a broad perspective on the economy and on economic activity in all parts of the nation. It is composed of a central government agency(Board of Governors) in Washington D.C., 12 regional Reserve Banks, located in major cities around the nation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Federal Reserve’s income comes from the interest on U.S. government securities that it has acquired through open market operations. Other sources of income are the interest on foreign currency investments. Once the Federal Reserve has paid its expenses, it then turns over the rest of its earnings to the U.S.

A unique Training Program at UPS

Mark Colvard, a United Parcel Manager in San Ramon, California, recently faced a difficult decision. One of his drivers asked for 2 week off to help an ailing family member.But company rules said this driver wasn’t eligible. If Colvard went by the book, the driver would probably take the days off anyway and be fired. On the other hand, Colvard chose to give the driver the time off. Although he took some heat for the decision, he also kept a valuable employee.Had Colvard been faced with this decision 6 months earlier, he says he would have gone the other way. What changed his thinking was a month he spent living in McAllen, Texas. It was part of a UPS management training experience called the Community Internship Program (CIP). During his month in McAllen, Colvard built housing for the poor, collected clothing for the Salvation Army, and worked in a drug rehab Center.Colvard gives the program credit for helping him empathize with employees facing crises back home. And he says t hat CIP has made him a better manager. â€Å"My goal was to make the numbers, and in some cases that meant not looking at the individual but looking at the bottom line. After that one month stay, I Immediately started reaching out to people in a different way.†CIP was established by UPS in the late 1960s to help open the eyes of the company’s predominantly white managers to the poverty and inequality in many cities. Today, the program takes 50 of the company’s most promising executives each summer and brings them to cities around the country.There they deal with a variety of problems from transportation to housing, education, and health care. The company’s goal is to awaken these managers to the challenges that many of their employees face, bridging the cultural divide that separates a white manager from an African American driver or an upper-income suburbanite from a worker raised in the rural South.1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Do you think individuals can lea rn empathy from something like a 1-month CIP experience? Explain why or why not.2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   How could UPS’s CIP help the organization better manage work life conflicts?3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   How could UPS’s CIP help the Organization improve its response to diversity?4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   What negatives, if any can you envision resulting from CIP?5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   UPS has 2,400 managers. CIP includes only 50 each year. How can the program make a difference if it include only 2 percent of all managers? Does this suggest that the program is more public relations than management training?6.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   How can UPS justify the cost of a program like CIP if competitors like FedEx, DHL, and the U.S. Postal Service don’t offer such programs? Does the program increase costs or reduce UPS profits?   

The Scientific Revolution by Eirika Edwardsen

The Scientific Revolution was crucial to the development of â€Å"modern† European thinking. It effected every aspect of life, and changed ideas that were the basis of stability in the society of Europe during this era. The effects were not only felt during this time but also continued to help shape and mold life and the way people thought for many decades after. Areas such as mathematics, science, theology, philosophy, literature, and art were all areas that were effected by the Scientific Revolution. The impact of the revolution played a major role in changing people†s views and ways of thinking. Everything that was taught to be right and true was now being questioned by a large number of people. The churches† hold on society and peoples† lives no longer had the grip that they maintained for thousands of years. With science opening eyes, people could see the facts about many things. The Earth was not the center of everything know to man, and the power of God did not effect the planets many yearly changes. Nature was a whole new concept, people began to explore and question everything that they had always been curious about. By having so many people becoming known for their ideas, scientific thinking gained the popularity that ultimately helped people change the old ways of thought and made it able for large groups to accept this new information. The Scientific Revolution helped to change modern thinking by offering new ideas that had the facts to back them up. If offered change in a society that needed nothing more. Those questioning life and everything that it included now had some answers and were able to see that by observing and researching, learning about almost anything was possible. The revolution not only helped in education, science, mathematics, and the arts, it helped open the opportunities for new religions to take a place in the developing world. The difference between the medieval understanding of the universe and the scientific view was basically knowledge versus faith. The medieval understanding was that the Earth was the center of all being and everything changed or developed by some act of God. God was the ruling power and the Earth was here to serve Him just as people were put on the Earth to serve God and reach a better life in Heaven. The Earth was thought to be divided into different levels that held places for those who were considered sinners and those who believed in their faith enough to be considered worthy for a place in heaven. Science changed and challenged these ideas. Scientific views said that the Sun, not the Earth was the center of the Universe. There were other planets, and satellites. Yes, God played his role, but it was not part of how the universe worked. The Earth and the universe were considered mechanical, things that could be learned, researched, and expanded. Science provided explanation that made sense to a large number of people, and this intimidated the church. The church knew that these ideas about the universe must have some fact or else they would not have been so intimidated by them. Shaken enough that they developed and Index of books with information that were forbidden to be read. The Age of Enlightenment was a time when education, the arts, theatre, and other such areas became powerful aspects of society. The leaders of this era sought to impose freedom of print and education. This is the time when philosophers were in their glory. As the Scientific Revolution broadened the ideas about nature, the Elightenment broadened thoughts of society and how it could or could not flourish. The effects of the age included changes in politics and how they intervened with everyday man and his life, thoughts of man no longer being a sinner damned into hell but rather a condition such as life that is ever changing and can be improved with education and conditioning, and also it provided ideas that would help improve religious toleration. Times such as The Scientific Revolution and The Age of Enlightenment did not come and go at a rapid rate. Decades upon decades of slow introduction of new ideas were necessary so that a revolution would not begin. These two eras offered information into a stagnant society. Not everyone would ultimately grasp these ideas, many were content living their lives they way the had been for hundreds of years.

Skills Management and Conceptual Skills

Introduction Research by Robert L. Katz found that managers need three basic and important skills: technical, human and conceptual. What is more, these three skills are relatively essential to managers who are at different levels that include first-line, middle, top management positions. There will be a discussion about the importance of conceptual skills that are needed by all managers at all levels, especially by top level of managers. The purpose of this essay is to identify and discuss the importance of conceptual skills that top managers are required to demonstrate.The essay will state why conceptual skills are not so important as much as lower managers through some supporting evidences,why conceptual skills become more important in top management positions than in other positions, and how top managers use conceptual skills in reality. At the end of essay, a conclusion the major findings will be provided. 1 Conceptual skills mean the ability to think and to conceptualize about a bstract and complex situations (Katz, R. L, 1974). It is different from technical skills and human skills.Technical skills tend to be more essential for lower-level managers because they should have the job specific knowledge and techniques to manage the work of non-managerial people (Katz, R. L, 1974). For example, accounts payable managers should know accounting rules and standardized forms very well so that they can solve problems which relevant to accounting fields. Whereas, human skills are important for managers at all levels, because every manager should have ability to work well with other people individually and in a group, all of managers deal directly with people.They should build cooperative spirit and motivate other workers. For example, first-line managers of food servicing company should communicate with producers to know how everything is going and where they should improve, so effective talking is very necessary to the whole company for any level of managers (Robbin s, S. P, 2011). Even though conceptual skills are not so important as much as lower managers, it does not mean lower managers do not use conceptual skills. In some situations, some of their works are related to conceptual abilities.It is little for mid-level managers, and it is not very required for first-level managers. While these lower-level managers should also make decisions to solve problems in some complex problems in their managerial fields. Whereas Katz thought that lower-level managers normally spend relative more time dealing with observable objects and processes, but upper-level managers often deal with abstract and complex ideas. So top managers’ responsibility matches conceptual skills, because top managers should make organization-wide decisions and establish the goals and plans that affect the entire organization (Robbins, S.P, 2011). That is why top managers are supposed not to only pay attention to small things, they should be leaders and have conceptual ski lls to lead the whole company to get more profits and access to success. Turn to lower-level managers, first-line managers are the lowest level of management, they coordinate the work of people who are non-managerial employees, such as producers. While middle managers manage the work of first-line managers (Robbins, S. P, 2011).Therefore, first-line managers should have special skills like technical skills, so that they can know how to supervise those producers to produce goods. 2 Conversely, conceptual skills are probably some of the most important management skills, which are very important to top managers especially. Katz proposed that these skills become more essential in top management positions. The reason for this is that top managers often deal with abstract ideas, and they are responsible for making organization-wide decisions and establishing the goals and plans that affect the entire organization.While conceptual skills can be described the ability to conceptualize about abstract time, they must see the organization as a whole and clear about the complicated relationships between various subunits. Then these abilities are essential to effective decision-making. So from the definition of conceptual skills, top managers should have many necessary skills, first is problem solving, they need to combine the whole organization together and use professional skills in practice to find how a party will be and what it will be like.The second key probably is study as a whole, so it is related to conceptualize about things. So they will not treat an organization as a part of the industry, looking the organization as a whole can help managers make decision or do something effectively. Conceptual skills also include creative thinking, which needs managers should have creative ideas, no matter for human management or the whole part management. In another word, conceptual skill is the ability to think in terms of models, frameworks and broad relationship such as lo ng-range plans.While technical skill has different characteristics of job performance, it does not matter at the operating and professional levels, but as employees are supposed to develop leadership responsibilities, their technical skills become proportionately less important, they increasingly depend on technical skills of their subordinates; in many cases they have never practiced some of the technical skills that they supervise. Conceptual skill deals with ideas, whereas human skill concerns people and technical skill involves things.So conceptual skills conclude knowing how to formulate ideas, so managers who have strong conceptual skills are supposed to have cognitive abilities to solve problems creatively and effectively. Therefore they can create new products, then they can examine a complicated issue or formulate a distinct and specific action. So when top managers make wide-decisions, conceptual skills are necessary, it will help them to do managing work easily and effect ively (Glaser, R. , & Resnick, L. B, 1989). 3Mintzberg concluded ten different roles but those roles are highly interrelated. Interpersonal role should be symbolic, which is essential for top managers, because top managers are leaders, their ability is to lead, supervise and motivate workers. So during this time, conceptual skills will be used because of many complex situations with employees and employers. Informational roles need managers to have the ability to receive, collect and disseminate information. Decisional roles are typically important to top managers.In usual time, they should do wide-making decisions, they will face many complex and abstract situations, but as a leader, they should solve these problems using their managerial skills. So they will use conceptual skills to make decisions due to solving all of abstract situations (Robbins, S. P, 2011). Otherwise, strategic planning is necessary for top managers in reality. Planning implementation is especially important, which needs managers to implement strategic planning effectively through formalizing and discipline.Managerial innovation includes total quality management. The generation of innovation results in an outcome – a product, service, technology, or practice that is at least new to an organizational population. Decision skills and strategic planning skills are fundamental factors of conceptual skills. For example, Facebook chief executive Mark Zuckerberg planned to offer a search feature like Google, he combined social and search together, people can do many things at the same place, even finding a good restaurant or learning about a good job.Facing the biggest competitor Google, Mark needs strategic planning skills to make latest strategies to deal with intense competitions this kind of complex situations. Therefore decision skills and strategic planning skills are related to conceptual skills. How do chief executive officers (CEOs) use conceptual skills? They set the tone for th e organization via the vision they express, decisions they make, policies they implement, and what they pay attention to, measure, and reward (Finkelstein, Hambrick, & Cannella, 2009).Those abstract situations they should face are very normal to a company. How will the members perform, how will set a correct direction, or how to coordinate relationships with stakeholders are complex actions they are supposed to do (Boal & Hooijberg, 2001; Hambrick & Mason, 1984; Ireland & Hitt, 1999). CEO Alan Joyce is leading change at Qantas to deal with the challenges in the airline industry’s fast-moving and competitive environment. Why would Qantas be successful? Because there are many effective strategies Qantas has conducted.Firstly, they split the operations into separate business in order to make each of the business units more accountable. They have also been forced to look at how it can reduce its costs. Secondly, under Joyce’s leadership, the company has a significantly low er cost base than its full service parent, customers are very satisfied with discount airline. Thirdly, an area where cost savings have been seen as necessary is in staffing. And the last point is to surge fuel prices. There are many competitors to Qantas, they all take effective actions at any time.So Alan Joyce has had to deal with as he maps a road that will make Qantas to continue to operate as a successful and profitable airline around the world (Robbins, S. P, 2011). Conclusion In summarize, conceptual skills are needed by all managers at all levels, but these skills are more important in top management positions. In current business, top managers should have these skills to make wide decisions and establish the goals to lead companies to be successful. Conceptual skills represent collaborative processes at the organizational and strategic levels.The degree of leader success will depend largely on the leader's ability to maximize the full potential of these collaborative netwo rks. Reference Boal KB. , ; Hooijberg R. (2001). Strategic leadership: Moving on. The Leadership Quarterly, 11, 515–550. Finkelstein S. , Hambrick DC. , Cannella AA. , ; Jr. (2009). Strategic leadership: Theory and research on executives, top management teams, and boards. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Glaser, R. , ; Resnick, L. B. (1989). Cognitive Apprenticeship: Teaching the Crafts of Reading, Writing, and Mathmatics.In Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser. Hillsdale, N. J: L. Erlbaum Associates,453-490. Kanter, R. M. (1984). The Change Masters. London: Unwin Hyman. Katz, R. L. (1974). Skills of an Effective Administrator. An HBR Classic. Harvard business review,  52(5), 90-102. Retrieved from http://hbr. org/1974/09/skills-of-an-effective-administrator/ar/1 Peters, T. J. , ; Waterman, R. H. (1984). In Search of Excellence. New York: Warner Books. Robbins, S. P. , R. Bergman, et al. (2009). Management. Frenchs Forest, N. S. W. , Pear son Education Australia. * *

Attracting and Retaining the Best Employees

How many of each type of therapist will the company need? Can not estimate the amount of staffing needed to staff the therapist do to patients needs, without number of patients. b. How will it prevent therapists from â€Å"burning out†? Cross training per therapists unlikely to be burnout since they are floating among the five nursing homes. c. How can it retain experienced staff and still limit costs? Job analysis Job description Job specification Recruiting Degree Employee training By offering the employee benefit package will still limit company cost d.Are promotions available for any of the staff? What is the career ladder? Performance appraisal or evaluation is used to provide employee with performance feedback, to serve as a basis for distributing reward. e. How will the company manage therapists at five different locations? How will it keep in touch them (computer, voice mail, monthly meetings)? Would it make more sense to have therapists work permanently at each locati on rather than rotate among them? They will keep it touch by iphone, computer e-mail, text messaging, morning appointments assignments. No, it will be more cost affected for the patients needed. . How will the company justify the travel costs? What other expenses might it expect? By filled out a traveling expense report employee will be reimbursement at the rate of . 27 cent a mile dependant on appointment schedule. It will consist of the following; Date Patient name Arrival time Department time Mileage Using company vehicle has the expense of repair and maintenance. 2. Prepare a plan for the New Therapy Company to present to the nursing homes. Human Resource Planning – Forecasting the human resources that a firm will need and those that it will have available for the action to match supply and demand.Job analysis – determining the exact nature of the positions Recruiting – attracting people the apply for position Selection – Choosing and hiring the most qualified applicants Orientation – acquainting new employees with the firm Compensation – rewarding employee effort through monetary payment Benefits – providing rewards to ensure employee well-being Training Development – teaching employee new skills, new jobs, and more effective ways of doing their present jobs Performance Appraisal – assessing employees’ current and potential performance levels

Adults with Learning Disabilities Essay Example for Free

Adults with Learning Disabilities Essay ? The discourse of ‘learning disabilities’ is now being used to challenge a wide range of acts and practices, including violence and intimidation, non-consenting sexual acts, the bullying of less resilient people by more able service users, unacceptably deprived physical or social environments and financial exploitation or fraud. Some argue that it should include all abuses of human rights. Clearly, these issues are not new as the following essay illustrates, and historically some of these practices have been hidden within service cultures while others have been quite open but variously rationalized as ‘behavior modification’, ‘relationships’, ‘control and restraint’, or ‘not giving in to attention seeking’. Abuse was regarded as a central, and inevitable, feature of institutionalized provision in influential models such as that of Goffman (1961) and Wolfensberger (1975 and 1980) within an analysis whose focus was on organizations and ideology. The new discourse is much more personalized and within it the focus is on the experience of the victim. This has some advantages for individuals and highlights some dilemmas for service organizations. It makes clear that people with learning disabilities are harmed, as any individual would be, by personal or sexual violence or exploitation. Harm is deemed equivalent whoever has caused it, for example whether it has been perpetrated by another service user, a member of staff or a stranger. This way of framing harmful acts highlights conflicts of interest between service users: the discourse of ‘challenging behavior’ for example, designed to neutralize the stigma of difficult behavior, inadvertently deflects from and discounts the experience of those on the receiving end of difficult behavior. Naming these acts as abusive confronts service agencies with the need for specialized, safe (expensive) placements for those who present a risk to others. Men with learning disabilities who have difficult sexual behaviors, for example, are often placed alongside very vulnerable people, their needs for asylum taking precedence over the safety of more vulnerable people (Thompson and Brown 1998). But while this acknowledgement is a step forward for individuals ,the new discourse risks personalizing forms of mistreatment that arise out of societal and structural inequalities. At an individual level, when issues of power are overlooked or neutralized, abusive and exploitative interactions can be explained away as relationships of choice. At a service level, new fault-lines between agencies and between purchasers, providers and regulators set up contingencies that make abuse more likely and less visible. At a societal level, there is growing inequality between the pay and working conditions of managerial, professional and so-called ‘unqualified’ staff within and across the statutory, private (for-profit) and voluntary (not-for-profit) sectors. Gender and race exacerbate the unequal position of direct care staff and the disproportionate responsibility that falls on them. This paper divides into two parts. First, I shall review the current usage of the term ‘learning disabilities’, looking at how it is being defined and categorized. Second, I will outline what is emerging as good practice in this field. WHAT DOES A LEARNING DISABILITY LOOK LIKE? Let me explain this with an exaomple: Sara’s lifelong difficulty with reading and writing had nothing to do with not being â€Å"smart. † Most individuals who have a learning disability are of average to above average intelligence and therefore have the intellectual potential to succeed at school and in careers. But they often do not reach this potential. While effort and motivation are important for success, it is clearly unfair to say of someone with a learning disability that he or she â€Å"just needs to try harder. † No matter how hard Sara worked, her problems did not go away. We know that a learning disability is caused by specific dysfunction within the central nervous system. The central nervous system, made up of the brain and the spinal cord, controls everything we do: our ability to process and think about language and to express ourselves verbally, as well as our ability to process nonverbal information, including art or music. Sara’s symptoms included reversing or rotating numbers (6 for 9), letters (b for d;p for q), and words (was for saw; on for no) when writing; omitting letters and sounds; and making sound and word substitutions when reading (tril for trial;then for there). Such problems make it difficult to decode words, and these decoding errors are most evident when reading aloud. Though never diagnosed, Sara’s symptoms became evident in first grade, when formal reading instruction began. As we learn to read we must of course master the alphabet, which is like a code, and learn the relationship between letters and sounds. Reading is a process of decoding the clusters of letters, converting them into words, and then attaching meaning to the words. In many cases, problems with phonological processing the ability to receive, transform, remember, and retrieve the sounds of oral language interfere with the acquisition of reading skills. Phonological processing involves the ability to separate a word into its component parts or blend sounds to construct a word. Problems with these skills make it very hard for the beginning reader to achieve fluency. Comprehension of written material depends on accurate and fluent decoding, a good vocabulary, and comprehension of the grammatical structure of sentences. When these skills are not developed that is, when they are slow and labored — the reader must devote more energy and effort to identifying and comprehending each individual word, rather than constructing meaning from an entire paragraph or from general context. For many years, researchers believed that the reader automatically moved from reading the words on a page to comprehending, without participating in the process of constructing meaning. But recent research points to the fact that the reader plays an active role: using background knowledge about the subject, calling on appropriate strategies for both decoding and comprehension, and applying the right amount of attention and concentration. Reading strategies are now considered essential components of the reading process. These might include paraphrasing while reading or summarizing afterward to help with comprehension. Competent readers are able to evaluate the reading task and select strategies that are a â€Å"good fit† or match to the task. In Sara’s case, she read slowly and had to reread material several times, so she found it difficult to comprehend content or recall important facts when questioned about them later. Unlike good readers, she did not rely on strategies that could help her. She also struggled with writing. Many times she was ashamed to submit patient reports because she knew they were filled with spelling, punctuation, and grammatical errors and were not organized or structured well. Her reports never reflected her knowledge or keen insight into patient care. Writing problems can be seen at any age, although they become more evident as academic or work demands increase. While Sara knew what she wanted to say, she had trouble getting started, focusing on the essential facts, and editing effectively. She tended to use the same words over and over. This was so different from her spoken language, which was rich and varied. Not surprisingly, it took her a long time and a good deal of effort to complete her reports. Her mathematical skills, though, were more than adequate. But there are people with learning disabilities who have problems understanding mathematical concepts or difficulty solving verbal or written mathematical problems. These problems may stem from more than one source, including inadequate spatial or directional sense and difficulty understanding abstract symbols or the language of mathematics. To use a basic example, someone who does not have a good understanding of concepts such as â€Å"plus† and â€Å"minus† is going to find it hard to identify the process needed to solve a mathematical problem. Learning strategies will be of great help to this person. Sara was also troubled by her erratic performance at work. Some days, she would be fine. But when she was fatigued or stressed, she found her attention was poor and she made more than the usual number of errors. At these times, she did not feel in control and usually needed to take a break and call on the support of friends to help her get back on track. While Sara felt her social life to be strength, some individuals who have learning disabilities have difficulty in social situations because they cannot perceive others’ needs and make or keep friends. Relationships with family and friends and associates on the job may suffer. As a way of compensating, an individual may avoid social situations altogether and thus become isolated. Others may struggle with low self-esteem and a lack of assertiveness, which can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies of failure. Moreover, repeated negative experiences in school and at home can discourage an individual from even trying. Many individuals who have learning disabilities have difficulty planning ahead and then evaluating their performance in academic courses or work-related tasks. Planning involves the ability to determine the outlines of a task and the skills it will require. Planning helps us generate strategies or know when to ask for outside help. We are not always conscious of initiating this type of planning because so many tasks are performed automatically, such as remembering a frequently called phone number by using a mnemonic, or writing notes in a book or on a memo. But when tasks are new or complex, active planning is needed. Other learning problems may stem from an inability to manage one’s time effectively to get something done on schedule. For example, many college students do not leave sufficient time to research and write a term paper, and end up frantically completing it the night before it is due. Or a manager may delay writing a budget or marketing report, finding it hard to begin. In order to use strategies at school, at home, or on the job, we need to be aware of ourselves as learners. Researchers have suggested that each of us has our own built-in executive function that directs and controls our actions. If this â€Å"executive† is efficient and aware of individual skills and the strategies needed to accomplish a task, the appropriate plan of action can be put into effect. If the plan is unsuccessful, then the executive reevaluates and initiates a new course of action. Individuals who have learning disabilities have a less efficient executive, the theory goes, and are therefore less able to generate and use effective strategies in their personal and professional lives. In addition to learning disabilities, a large number of adults suffer from attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). ADHD affects an individual’s ability to focus and concentrate on school or work tasks, and to make good use of strategies. The struggle to achieve is so much harder with the added burden of ADHD. Although external factors do not cause a learning disability, we know that they do play a significant role in learning. It is well documented that the environment we live and work in influences and helps to shape our learning patterns, behavior, and sense of self. Research has consistently shown that the type and quality of support provided both at school and within the home are strong determinants of success in school, at work, or in one’s personal life. For example, a supportive family, early identification of learning problems, and appropriate intervention may make all the difference in helping an individual compensate for the disability. Learning disabilities are found throughout the world and in all socioeconomic groups — they are not bound by culture or language. Approximately the same numbers of males as females have learning disabilities, and the problem tends to run in families. Many prominent figures in politics, science, and the arts are reported to have had a learning disability, among them Nelson Rockefeller, Winston Churchill, Albert Einstein, Thomas Edison, and Auguste Rodin. Einstein, for example, was described as having difficulty learning a foreign language and mathematics — of all things! He also struggled with other academic subjects and with writing. All adults face the challenges and rewards of employment, home and family, leisure pursuits, community involvement, emotional and physical health, and personal responsibility and relationships. Adults who have learning disabilities must manage these life demands with an added set of problems. Society expects adults to be self-supporting, to function within a community, and to exhibit appropriate social behavior. Typically, to be self-supporting one must be employed. Employment for most adults spans a long period of time. It may begin with the exit from high school and continue for fifty or more years. While research on the employment of adults who have learning disabilities is sparse, and the findings that are available reflect the heterogeneity of the population, the information reported is unfortunately discouraging. It suggests that individuals with learning disabilities, as a group, show higher rates of unemployment, have jobs of lower status, receive lower pay, and change jobs more frequently than those without learning disabilities. Of course, there are many individuals at all levels of the workforce who do attain professional success. Further, there are well-documented accounts of persons with learning disabilities throughout history who have made significant contributions to society, among the most notable being Einstein, Edison, Churchill, and Rockefeller. It is important to keep in mind that adults who have learning disabilities who have above average intelligence, come from middle to higher economic backgrounds, and/or have completed postsecondary education, have higher rates of employment, higher job status, and greater job satisfaction than this research indicates. Those who graduate from college are much more likely to hold professional or managerial positions, for example, than those who have only a high school diploma. What makes success on the job so difficult for some people with learning disabilities? For one thing, persistent problems with reading, writing, and arithmetic can interfere with their work. Many report that they continue to struggle with decoding skills, sight vocabulary, and reading rate. Banking tasks and money management often bring out their troubles with arithmetic. Spelling is frequently reported to be the biggest problem of all. The level of basic skills that is required in the current job market is expanding to include more abstract abilities. Employers want their workers not only to be proficient in basic skills but also to be able to use these skills effectively and efficiently to solve on-the-job problems. Employers want the people they hire to be able to read for information, to analyze and synthesize the material, and apply the material read to on-the-job situations. They further expect employees to analyze problems, formulate solutions, and communicate that process, in writing, to others. Workplace mathematics, like reading and writing, also requires identification of the problem, analysis, and then the ability to find a solution. Employers further expect good interpersonal skills. The ability to use technology and information systems is becoming more essential as well. To do all of these things efficiently and effectively, workers must have mastered basic skills and be able to apply thinking skills. They also need personal qualities such as individual responsibility, self-esteem, and self management. The nature of a learning disability may affect the development of some of these competencies. For example, because of years of struggle and failure, self-esteem may be low and self-monitoring skills may not be functioning effectively. Employers often do not understand what a learning disability is, thus making it even more difficult for the adults with learning disabilities whom they supervise. Because employers cannot â€Å"see† the disability and may have limited knowledge about learning disabilities, they may find it difficult to understand that the problems are real. Therefore, they may fail to provide the necessary accommodations and supportive environment. They may often fail to recognize that, with assistance, workers who have learning disabilities may be tremendous assets to the company. A learning disability is a lifelong condition. Some adults, by the time they have completed their formal education, have learned to compensate for their difficulties. For many others, difficulties continue and to varying degrees impact on careers, social relationships, and activities of daily living. There are adults who were diagnosed as children and received services under the guidelines of PL 94-142. But more and more adults, who never knew why school was so hard, are now addressing the problem by initiating an assessment and seeking services to help them cope with their disabilities. Adults who have learning disabilities are a heterogeneous group. Some struggle with reading and writing, some with mathematical tasks, some with the basic challenges of daily life. There are adults who have learning disabilities who have trouble finding and keeping a job; others are professionally successful yet cannot seem to develop a satisfying social life. And there are those who seem to have few problems as they successfully negotiate the range of life’s demands. Adults who have learning disabilities are not merely children with learning disabilities grown up. The impact of having a learning disability differs at each stage of development. And adulthood itself has many stages, each with its unique challenges. Satisfaction or dissatisfaction at one stage does not guarantee the same degree of adjustment at another. At one point, the adult might deal with self-identity, at another with employment and economic independence, and still another with personal responsibility and relationships. As a group, adults who have learning disabilities represent a broad spectrum of the population. We see individuals of different ages, from different socioeconomic, ethnic, and cultural groups. We see different clusters of social and learning problems that affect education, social, personal, and occupational adjustments. The field now recognizes the unique needs of the adult who has learning disabilities, and as such has responded by providing legal protection, programs, services, and an ever-developing information base. Where do we stand today? References: Erikson, E. H. 1968. Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton. Hallahan, D. P. , Lloyd, J. W. , Kauffman, J. M. , Weiss, M. P. , & Martinez, E. A. (2005). Learning disabilities: Foundations, characteristics, and effective teaching (3rd ed. ). Toronto: Pearson Education, Inc. Johnson, D. J. , & Blalock, J. W. (1987). Adults with learning disabilities: Clinical studies. Orlando: Grune & Stratton. Jordan, D. R. (1996). Teaching adults with learning disabilities. The professional practices in adult education and human resource development series. Malabar, Fla: Krieger Pub. Shapiro, J. , & Rich, R. (1999). Facing learning disabilities in the adult years. New York: Oxford University Press. Wong, B. Y. L. (1998). Learning about learning disabilities. San Diego: Academic Press. Adults with Learning Disabilities. (2016, Dec 10).